Subsistence

• Foraging
  
• Cultivation
  
  • Horticulture
    
    • Horticulture is plant cultivation, based on the use of simple tools.
  • Agriculture
    
    • Agriculture is cultivation involving continuous use of crop land, and is more labor-intensive than horticulture.
      
• Pastoralism
  
  • Pastoral economies are based upon domesticated herd animals, but members of such economies may get agricultural produce through trade or their own subsidiary cultivation.
    
    • Pastoral nomadism: all members of the pastoral society follow the herd throughout the year.
      
    • Transhumance or agro-pastoralism: part of the society follows the herd, while the other part maintains a home village.
      
• Modes of production
  
  • All societies divide labor according to gender and age, but the nature of these divisions varies greatly from society to society.
    
• Means of Production
  
  • Means of production include land, labor, technology, and capital.
    
• Alternative ends
  
  • People devote their time, resources, and energy to five broad categories of ends: subsistence, replacement, social, ceremonial, and rent.
    
    • Subsistence fund: work is done to replace calories lost through life activities.
      
    • Replacement fund: work is expended maintaining the technology necessary for life.
      
    • Social fund: work is expended to establish and maintain social ties.
      
    • Ceremonial fund: work is expended to fulfill ritual obligations.
      
    • Rent fund: work is expended to satisfy the obligations owed political or economic superiors.
      
• Distribution and Exchange
  
  • The market principle
    
    • The market principle applies when exchange rates and organization are governed by an arbitrary money standard.
      
  • Redistribution
    
    • Redistribution is the typical mode of exchange in chiefdoms and in some non-industrial states.
      
  • Reciprocity
    
    • Reciprocity is exchange between social equals.
      
  • Potlatching
    
    • Potlatches are a widely studied ritual in which sponsors (helped by their entourages) gave away resources and manufactured wealth while generating prestige for themselves.

See also

• List of alternative lifestyles
• List of things which are neither production nor consumption

Referenced By